Description
Non-metallic (NM) pultruded composites shapes, herein referred to as Fiber fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) composites provide durable and cost-effective solutions that have been extensively tested and validated as an alternative to tradi¬tional building materials (such as wood, steel, aluminum). FRP pultruded systems are readily available at all built environment scales: from large infrastructure, to commercial, all the way to residential. FRP pultruded elements are readily avail¬able at all built environment scales: from large infrastructure, to commercial and residential. While FRP pultruded solutions may appear to be new and innovative, they have been used for several decades.
The pultrusion process of FRP composites allows the manufacturing of limitless shapes and structural profiles for use in any type of construction. FRP pultruded composites offer: i) corrosion free structures, ii) high chemical resistance, iii) lightweight (1/4 that of steel), iv) high tensile strength, v) non-interference to magnetic fields and radar frequencies. This translates into:
i) long life-cycle service exceeding 100 years of strength retention in corrosive environments,
ii) ii) excellent whole-of-life savings (low, or maintenance free structures),
iii) iii) ease of handling and installation reducing construction and labor costs; and iv) reduced transportation costs.
Today, FRPs are supported by accepted and recognized material, design and standards; however, FRP pultruded solutions are typically not commonly known, and typically limited to niche applications or projects. While adoption of these systems could be widespread to leverage the extensive range of benefits offered by FRP pultruded solutions, the lack of familiarity and awareness by engineers, owners, and specifiers is a persistent barrier. Since no single document in the open literature provides an overview for the use of FRP pultruded elements, this docu¬ment provides stakeholders across the building environment the necessary knowl¬edge and tools to understand the “why, what, and how” of FRP pultruded solutions for the built environment, by:
1. Presenting the different readily available FRP pultruded solutions and applications;
2. Identifying the benefits of FRP pultruded solutions applied in the built environment, addressing the challenges and opportunities such systems;
3. Referencing the relevant NM pultruded material qualification and testing specifications;
4. Introducing the design guidelines and other relevant documents for using NM pultruded solutions in built infrastructure projects.
In summary, the economic and performance advantages of FRP pultruded composites compared to traditional building materials are evident. This docu¬ment provides readers with a comprehensive and up-to-date overview of proper¬ties, design, and use of FRP pultruded components, their connection methods and resulting structures, with the underlying objective to aid stakeholders in the imple¬mentation within building applications and beyond. Ultimately, FRP composites are an enabling material solution for the building industry.
Keywords:
NEx, FRP pultruded shapes, FRP panels, nonmetallic, fibers, resins, pultrusion, structural framing, bridges, offshore structures, docks and marinas, industrial tanks, processing equipment
Table of Contents
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 3
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 4
1. INTRODUCTION 9
2. BACKGROUND 10
2.1 HISTORICAL OVERVIEW 10
2.2 BUILT INFRASTRUCTURE APPLICATIONS OVERVIEW 10
3. FRP PULTRUDED COMPONENTS: HOW 16
3.1 PULTRUSION PRECURSOR 16
3.2 FRP PULTRUSION 16
3.2.1 Reinforcement Materials 16
3.2.2 Resin Bath 17
3.2.3 Surfacing Veil 18
3.2.4 Preforming 18
3.2.5 Forming and Curing 18
3.2.6 Pulling System 19
3.2.7 Cut-off Saw 20
3.2.8 Finishing Processes 20
3.3 FIBERS IN FRP 21
3.3.1 Role of Fibers 21
3.3.2 Fiber Orientation 22
3.3.3 Glass Fibers 23
3.3.4 Carbon Fibers 24
3.3.5 Basalt Fibers 26
3.3.6 Aramid Fibers 27
3.3.7 Other Polymer Fibers 28
3.4 SIZING IN FRP 29
3.5 RESIN IN FRP 30
3.5.1 Role of Resin 30
3.5.2 Themoset vs. Themoplastic 31
3.5.3 Epoxy 32
3.5.4 Polyester and Isophthalic Polyester 32
3.5.5 Vinyl Ester 33
3.5.6 Polyurethane 33
3.5.7 Phenolic 34
3.5.8 Acrylic 34
3.5.9 Other Thermoplastics 35
4. FRP PULTRUDED COMPONENTS: WHERE 36
4.1 APPLICATIONS & SECTORS OVERVIEW 36
4.1.1 Non-Civil Infrastructure 36
4.1.2 Civil Infrastructure 37
4.2 COMMON COMPONENTS 38
4.3 GENERAL CONSTRUCTION 39
4.3.1 Structural Framing 39
4.3.2 Concrete Reinforcement 41
4.3.3 Cladding and Fenestration 44
4.3.4 Pedestrian Bridges and Boardwalks 44
4.3.5 Vehicular Bridge Decks 46
4.4 INDUSTRIAL PLANTS 47
4.5 TRANSPORTATION 48
4.5.1 FRP for platform structures 48
4.5.2 Posts and fences 48
4.6 WATERFRONT 49
4.6.1 Fender Systems 49
4.6.2 Sheet Pile Walls 51
4.6.3 Dock and Marinas 51
4.6.4 Offshore Structures 52
4.7 UTILITY AND TELECOMUNICATIONS 52
4.7.1 Utility Poles 52
4.7.2 Cross-Arms 52
4.7.3 FRP Panels 54
4.7.4 Industrial Tanks & Processing Equipment 54
5. FRP PULTRUDED COMPONENTS: WHY 56
5.1 FRP KEY ATTRIBUTES 56
5.2 GENERAL CONSTRUCTION 57
5.2.1 Structural Framing 57
5.2.2 Concrete Reinforcement 57
5.2.3 Cladding and Fenestration 58
5.2.4 Pedestrian Bridges and Boardwalks 58
5.2.5 Vehicular Bridge Decks 58
5.3 SPECIALIZED CONSTRUCTION 59
5.3.1 Data Centers 59
5.3.2 Industrial & Specialized Buildings 59
5.4 TRANSPORTATION 59
5.5 WATERFRONT 60
5.6 UTILITY AND TELECOMUNICATIONS 60
5.7 FRP vs. TRADITIONAL MATERIALS 61
5.7.1 Cost 61
5.7.2 Weight 62
5.7.3 Tensile Strength 63
5.7.4 Modulus of Elasticity 63
5.7.5 Shear Modulus 64
5.7.6 Thermal Properties 64
6. FRP TESTING STANDARDS 65
6.1 CONSTITUENT MATERIAL TESTS 65
6.1.1 Fiber 65
6.1.2 Resin 66
6.2 FRP MATERIAL TESTS 67
6.2.1 Lamina Level 68
6.2.2 Laminate Level 68
6.2.3 FRP Pultruded Components 68
6.3 FULL-SECTION TESTS FOR FRP PROFILES 71
6.4 NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTS 72
6.4.1 Visual Inspection Testing 73
6.4.2 Sounding Testing 74
6.4.3 Ultrasonic Testing 74
6.4.4 Vibrational (modal) Testing 74
6.4.5 Infrared Thermographic Testing 75
6.4.6 Acoustic Emission Testing 75
6.4.7 Acoustic-Ultrasonic Testing 76
6.5 QUALITY CONTROL AND QUALITY ASSURANCE 76
7. FRP PULTRUDED SPECIFICATIONS 79
7.1 PURPOSE OF SPECIFICATIONS 79
7.1.1 Performance and Quality 79
7.1.2 Safety and Reliability 79
7.1.3 Compatibility and Interchangeability 79
7.1.4 Design Process 79
7.1.5 Manufacturing and Process Optimization 80
7.1.6 Regulatory Compliance 80
7.2 CONTENT OF A STANDARD SPECIFCIATION 80
7.3 FRP PULTRUDED SPECIFICATIONS 82
7.3.1 Design Specifications 83
7.3.2 Material Specifications 83
7.3.3 FRP Component Specifications 83
7.3.4 Project / Construction Specifications 83
7.3.5 Quality Control Specifications 84
7.4 GAPS IN FRP PULTRUDED SPECIFICATIONS 84
7.4.1 Application Specifications 85
7.4.2 Long Term Performance 85
7.4.3 Fire Performance 85
7.4.4 Unification of Standards 86
8. FRP DESIGN: GUIDELINES & JOINTS 87
8.1 DESIGN STANDARDS 87
8.1.1 Codes and FRP Composites 87
8.1.2 ASCE/SEI 74 88
8.1.3 CEN/TC prEN 19101 89
8.1.4 Manufactures’ Design Manual 91
8.1.5 Other Design Resources 91
8.2 DESIGN PHILOSOPHY 92
8.2.1 Allowable Stress Design (ASD) 92
8.2.2 Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) 93
8.3 JOINTS & CONNECTIONS 96
8.3.1 Bolted Joint 96
8.3.2 Adhesive Joint 97
8.3.3 Hybrid Connections 98
8.3.4 Interlocking Connections 99
8.3.5 Failure Modes: Bolted Joints 99
8.3.6 FRP vs Metallic Bolted Connections 102
8.3.7 Failure Modes: Adhesive Joints 102
9. CONCLUDING REMARKS AND FUTURE WORK 105
9.1 CONCLUSIONS 105
9.2 FUTURE WORK 106
10. REFERENCES 107
11. FRP COMPOSITE MANUFACTURERS 110
ANNEX A: TERMINOLOGY USED WITH NM FRP PULTRUDED COMPONENTS 111
ANNEX B: PROPERTIES OF COMMERCIALLY AVAILABLE NM FRP PULTRUDED COMPONENTS 123
Pultex® Equal Leg Angles 124
Extren® Equal Leg Angles 125
Pultex® Square Tubes 126
EXTREN® Square Tubes 127
Pultex® Round Tubes 128
EXTREN® Round Tubes 129
Pultex® Wide Flange Sections 130
Pultex® I-Sections 130
Extren® I-Shapes 131
Pultex® Rectangular Tubes 132
EXTREN® Rectangular Shapes 133
Pultex® Unequal Leg Angles 134
Unequal Leg Angle 135
Pultex® Channels 135
Extren® Channels 136
Pultex® Solid Round Rods 137
Round Rod 137
Pultex® Solid Bars 138
Square Bars 138
Pultex® Sludge Flights 139
Structural Tees 139
Double EXTREN® Channels 140
Double Angles: EXTREN® Equal Leg Angles 141
EXTREN® Construction Grade Plate 141
Flat Strips 142
F Section 142
Struts 143
Kick Plates 143
Square Tube / Round Hole 144
Z Section 144
Slide Guide 144
Flight channel 145
Curb Angles 145
SAFRAIL™ Post or Rail Section 146
SAFRAIL™ Round Handrail Post or Rail Section 146
Half Round Rail Section 146
ANNEX C: LIST OF PROJECT EXAMPLES 147
12.1 GENERAL CONSTRUCTION 147
12.1.1 Structural Framing 147
12.1.2 Concrete Reinforcement 147
12.1.3 Cladding and Fenestration 147
12.1.4 Pedestrian Bridges and Boardwalks 147
12.1.5 Vehicular Bridge Decks 147
12.2 INDUSTRIAL PLANTS 147
12.3 TRANSPORTATION 148
12.3.1 FRP for platform structures 148
12.3.2 Posts and fences 148
12.4 WATERFRONT 148
12.4.1 Fender Systems 148
12.4.2 Sheet Pile Walls 148
12.4.3 Dock and Marinas 148
12.4.4 Offshore Structures 148
12.5 UTILITY AND TELECOMUNICATIONS 148
12.5.1 Utility Poles 148
12.5.2 Cross-Arms 148
12.5.3 FRP Panels 148
12.5.4 Industrial Tanks & Processing Equipment 148
ANNEX D: NM FRP PULTRUDED STANDARDS LIST 149
14.1 Standards and Specifications (per Standard Organization and Type) 149
American Society of Testing and Materials (ASTM) Test Methods 149
CEN 13706 Test Methods for FRP Pultruded Profiles 153
CSA S806 Standard Test Methods for FRP Bars and Laminates 153
JSCE (Japan Society of Civil Engineers) 154
14.2 Design Standards 155