Title:
Evaluation of Fresh, Hardened, and Durability Properties of Three-Dimensional Concrete Printed Pipes
Author(s):
Alireza Hasani and Sattar Dorafshan
Publication:
Materials Journal
Volume:
122
Issue:
6
Appears on pages(s):
73-84
Keywords:
additive construction; buildability; culverts; digital fabrication; three-dimensional concrete printing (3DCP).
DOI:
10.14359/51749126
Date:
11/1/2025
Abstract:
Additive construction augments the laborious construction of structural concrete; however, its implementation remains mostly limited to building envelopes. Culvert construction benefits from alternative methods due to the high demand for transportation infrastructure. In this study, extrusion-based three-dimensional concrete printing (3DCP) is developed for the first time for culvert construction. Large-scale unreinforced concrete pipes were printed, and the early-stage (for example, buildability), mechanical, and durability properties of two commercially available 3DCP materials were determined. Additionally, the specimens were tested structurally and exceeded the expected structural performance (by approximately an average of 32%) under the three-edge bearing test. However, the desired durability was not met due to the porosity of the specimens. The mixture design with microfibers exhibited marginally higher compressive and tensile strength but did not meet durability criteria similar to non-fiber material. Results indicated the 3DCP feasibility for pipe culvert construction and mapped further direction for widespread implementation and addressing concrete pipe durability issues.
Related References:
1. Hasani, A., and Dorafshan, S., “Transforming Construction? Evaluation of the State of Structural 3D Concrete Printing in Research and Practice,” Construction and Building Materials, V. 438, 2024, p. 137027. doi: 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2024.137027
2. Delgado Camacho, D.; Clayton, P.; O’Brien, W. J.; Seepersad, C.; Juenger, M.; Ferron, R.; and Salamone, S., “Applications of Additive Manufacturing in the Construction Industry – A Forward-Looking Review,” Automation in Construction, V. 89, 2018, pp. 110-119. doi: 10.1016/j.autcon.2017.12.031
3. Guanziroli, S.; Marcucci, A.; Negrini, A.; Ferrara, L.; and Chiaia, B., “A New Concept of Additive Manufacturing for the Regeneration of Existing Tunnels,” Proceedings of Italian Concrete Conference 2022, M. A. Aiello and A. Bilotta, eds., Springer Nature Switzerland; 2024, pp. 116-124.
4. Li, X.; Shao, Y.; Ma, G.; and Wang, L., “A New 3D Printing Method and Similar Materials of the Tunnel Lining for the Geomechanical Model Test,” Construction and Building Materials, V. 433, 2024, p. 136724. doi: 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2024.136724
5. Tao, Y., and Yuan, Y., “3D Concrete Printing for Tunnel Linings: Opportunities and Challenges,” IOP Conference Series. Earth and Environmental Science, V. 1333, No. 1, 2024, p. 012039. doi: 10.1088/1755-1315/1333/1/012039
6. Kreiger, E.; Diggs-McGee, B.; Wood, T.; MacAllister, B.; and Kreiger, M., “Field Considerations for Deploying Additive Construction,” Second RILEM International Conference on Concrete and Digital Fabrication, F. P. Bos, S. S. Lucas, R. J. M. Wolfs, and T. A. M. Salet, eds., Springer International Publishing, 2020, pp. 1147-1163, http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-030-49916-7_109. (last accessed Sept. 30, 2025)
7. Park, Y.; Abolmaali, A.; Beakley, J.; and Attiogbe, E., “Thin-Walled Flexible Concrete Pipes with Synthetic Fibers and Reduced Traditional Steel Cage,” Engineering Structures, V. 100, 2015, pp. 731-741. doi: 10.1016/j.engstruct.2015.06.049
8. Thomason, C., Hydraulic Design Manual, Texas Department of Transportation, Austin, TX, 2019, https://www.txdot.gov/manuals/des/hyd/index.html. (last accessed Oct. 2, 2025)
9. Prasittisopin, L.; Sakdanaraseth, T.; and Horayangkura, V., “Design and Construction Method of a 3D Concrete Printing Self-Supporting Curvilinear Pavilion,” Journal of Architectural Engineering, ASCE, V. 27, No. 3, 2021, p. 05021006. doi: 10.1061/(ASCE)AE.1943-5568.0000485
10. Bhandari, S.; Lopez-Anido, R. A.; Anderson, J.; and Mann, A., “Large-Scale Extrusion-Based 3D Printing for Highway Culvert Rehabilitation,” SPE ANTEC, 2021.
11. Rui, Z.; Metz, P. A.; Reynolds, D. B.; Chen, G.; and Zhou, X., “Historical Pipeline Construction Cost Analysis,” International Journal of Oil, Gas and Coal Technology, V. 4, No. 3, 2011, p. 244. doi: 10.1504/IJOGCT.2011.040838
12. Khanverdi, M., and Das, S., “Experimental Study on Water Penetration and Thermal Resistance of Large-Scale 3D-Printed Cementitious Walls,” Journal of Building Engineering, V. 104, 2025, p. 112286. doi: 10.1016/j.jobe.2025.112286
13. ASTM C14-20, “Standard Specification for Nonreinforced Concrete Sewer, Storm Drain, and Culvert Pipe,” ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2020, 5 pp.
14. Hasani, A.; Besharatian, B.; and Dorafshan, S., “Additively Constructed Plain Concrete Pipes: Structural Performance and Site Implementation,” Journal of Architectural Engineering, ASCE, V. 31, No. 3, 2025, p. 04025023. doi: 10.1061/JAEIED.AEENG-2013
15. ASTM C109/C109M-21, “Standard Test Method for Compressive Strength of Hydraulic Cement Mortars (Using 2-in. or [50 mm] Cube Specimens),” ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2021, 12 pp.
16. Rushing, T. S.; Stynoski, P. B.; Barna, L. A.; Al-Chaar, G. K.; Burroughs, J. F.; Shannon, J. D.; Kreiger, M. A.; and Case, M. P., “Investigation of Concrete Mixtures for Additive Construction,” 3D Concrete Printing Technology, 2019, pp. 137-160.
17. Malaeb, Z.; AlSakka, F.; and Hamzeh, F., “3D Concrete Printing: Machine Design, Mix Proportioning, and Mix Comparison between Different Machine Setups,” 3D Concrete Printing Technology, 2019. pp. 115-136.
18. Kazemian, A.; Yuan, X.; Cochran, E.; and Khoshnevis, B., “Cementitious Materials for Construction-Scale 3D Printing: Laboratory Testing of Fresh Printing Mixture,” Construction and Building Materials, V. 145, 2017, pp. 639-647. doi: 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2017.04.015
19. Zareiyan, B., and Khoshnevis, B., “Interlayer Adhesion and Strength of Structures in Contour Crafting - Effects of Aggregate Size, Extrusion Rate, and Layer Thickness,” Automation in Construction, V. 81, 2017, pp. 112-121. doi: 10.1016/j.autcon.2017.06.013
20. Rahul, A. V.; Santhanam, M.; Meena, H.; and Ghani, Z., “3D Printable Concrete: Mixture Design and Test Methods,” Cement and Concrete Composites, V. 97, 2019, pp. 13-23. doi: 10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2018.12.014
21. Nerella, V. N.; Näther, M.; Iqbal, A.; Butler, M.; and Mechtcherine, V., “Inline Quantification of Extrudability of Cementitious Materials for Digital Construction,” Cement and Concrete Composites, V. 95, 2019, pp. 260-270. doi: 10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2018.09.015
22. Zhang, Y.; Zhang, Y.; She, W.; Yang, L.; Liu, G.; and Yang, Y., “Rheological and Harden Properties of the High-Thixotropy 3D Printing Concrete,” Construction and Building Materials, V. 201, 2019, pp. 278-285. doi: 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.12.061
23. Muthukrishnan, S.; Kua, H. W.; Yu, L. N.; and Chung, J. K. H., “Fresh Properties of Cementitious Materials Containing Rice Husk Ash for Construction 3D Printing,” Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, ASCE, V. 32, No. 8, 2020, p. 04020195. doi: 10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0003230
24. Kuchem, J. T., “Development of Test Methods for Characterizing Extrudability of Cement-Based Materials for Use in 3D Printing,” master’s thesis, 2019, https://scholarsmine.mst.edu/masters_theses/7906. (last accessed Sept. 30, 2025)
25. Hojati, M., “Resilient 3D-Printed Infrastructure with Engineered Cementitious Composites (ECC),” Transportation Consortium of South-Central States, 2021.
26. ASTM C1437-20, “Standard Test Method for Flow of Hydraulic Cement Mortar,” ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2020, 2 pp.
27. ASTM C230-23, “Standard Specification for Flow Table for Use in Tests of Hydraulic Cement,” ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2023, 7 pp.
28. Nematollahi, B.; Vijay, P.; Sanjayan, J.; Nazari, A.; Xia, M.; Naidu Nerella, V.; and Mechtcherine, V., “Effect of Polypropylene Fibre Addition on Properties of Geopolymers Made by 3D Printing for Digital Construction,” Materials, V. 11, No. 12, 2018, p. 2352. doi: 10.3390/ma11122352
29. Yu, K.; McGee, W.; Ng, T. Y.; Zhu, H.; and Li, V. C., “3D-Printable Engineered Cementitious Composites (3DP-ECC): Fresh and Hardened Properties,” Cement and Concrete Research, V. 143, 2021, p. 106388. doi: 10.1016/j.cemconres.2021.106388
30. Mechtcherine, V.; Nerella, V. N.; Will, F.; Näther, M.; Otto, J.; and Krause, M., “Large-Scale Digital Concrete Construction—Conprint3d Concept for On-Site, Monolithic 3D-Printing,” Automation in Construction, V. 107, 2019, p. 102933. doi: 10.1016/j.autcon.2019.102933
31. Tripathi, A.; Nair, S. A. O.; and Neithalath, N., “A Comprehensive Analysis of Buildability of 3D-Printed Concrete and the Use of Bi-Linear Stress-Strain Criterion-Based Failure Curves Towards Their Prediction,” Cement and Concrete Composites, V. 128, 2022, p. 104424. doi: 10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2022.104424
32. Zhou, W.; McGee, W.; Zhu, H.; Gökçe, H. S.; and Li, V. C., “Time-Dependent Fresh Properties Characterization of 3D Printing Engineered Cementitious Composites (3DP-ECC): On the Evaluation of Buildability,” Cement and Concrete Composites, V. 133, 2022, p. 104704. doi: 10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2022.104704
33. Suiker, A. S. J.; Wolfs, R. J. M.; Lucas, S. M.; and Salet, T. A. M., “Elastic Buckling and Plastic Collapse during 3D Concrete Printing,” Cement and Concrete Research, V. 135, 2020, p. 106016. doi: 10.1016/j.cemconres.2020.106016
34. Diggs-McGee, B. N., and Kreiger, E. L., “Using Isolated Temporal Analysis to Aid in the Assessment of Structural Element Quality for Additive Construction,” Standards Development for Cement and Concrete for Use in Additive Construction, S. Z. Jones and E. L. Kreiger, eds., ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2021, pp. 117-143, https://store.astm.org/stp163620200105.html. (last accessed Oct. 2, 2025)
35. Roussel, N., “Rheological Requirements for Printable Concretes,” Cement and Concrete Research, V. 112, 2018, pp. 76-85. doi: 10.1016/j.cemconres.2018.04.005
36. ASTM C496/C496M-17, “Standard Test Method for Splitting Tensile Strength of Cylindrical Concrete Specimens,” ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2017, 5 pp.
37. ASTM C469/C469M-22, “Standard Test Method for Static Modulus of Elasticity and Poisson’s Ratio of Concrete in Compression,” ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2022, 6 pp.
38. Ghantous, R. M.; Evseeva, A.; Dickey, B.; Gupta, S.; Prihar, A.; and Esmaeeli, H. S., “Examining Effect of Printing Directionality on the Freezing-and-Thawing Response of Three-Dimensional-Printed Cement Paste,” ACI Materials Journal, V. 120, No. 4, July 2023, pp. 89-102.
39. Atkinson, C. D., and Aslani, F., “Performance of 3D Printed Columns Using Self-Sensing Cementitious Composites,” Construction and Building Materials, V. 375, 2023, p. 130961. doi: 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2023.130961
40. Van Der Putten, J.; De Volder, M.; Van Den Heede, P.; De Schutter, G.; and Van Tittelboom, K., “3D Printing of Concrete: The Influence on Chloride Penetration,” Second RILEM International Conference on Concrete and Digital Fabrication, F. P. Bos, S. S. Lucas, R. J. M. Wolfs, and T. A. M. Salet, eds., Springer International Publishing, 2020 pp. 500-507, http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-030-49916-7_51. (last accessed Sept. 30, 2025)
41. ASTM C1202-22, “Standard Test Method for Electrical Indication of Concrete’s Ability to Resist Chloride Ion Penetration,” ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2022, 8 pp.
42. ASTM C497-20e1, “Standard Test Methods for Concrete Pipe, Concrete Box Sections, Manhole Sections, or Tile,” ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2020, 17 pp.
43. ASTM C642-21, “Standard Test Method for Density, Absorption, and Voids in Hardened Concrete,” ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2021, 3 pp.
44. Moini, R.; Olek, J.; Zavattieri, P. D.; and Youngblood, J. P., “Early-Age Buildability-Rheological Properties Relationship in Additively Manufactured Cement Paste Hollow Cylinders,” Cement and Concrete Composites, V. 131, 2022, p. 104538. doi: 10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2022.104538
45. ASTM C42/C42M-20, “Standard Test Method for Obtaining and Testing Drilled Cores and Sawed Beams of Concrete,” ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2020, 7 pp.
46. Rutzen, M.; Schulz, M.; Moosburger-Will, J.; Lauff, P.; Fischer, O.; and Volkmer, D., “3D Printing as an Automated Manufacturing Method for a Carbon Fiber-Reinforced Cementitious Composite with Outstanding Flexural Strength (105 N/mm2),” Materials and Structures, V. 54, No. 6, 2021, p. 234. doi: 10.1617/s11527-021-01827-2
47. Ding, T.; Xiao, J.; Zou, S.; and Zhou, X., “Anisotropic Behavior in Bending of 3D Printed Concrete Reinforced with Fibers,” Composite Structures, V. 254, 2020, p. 112808. doi: 10.1016/j.compstruct.2020.112808
48. Kaliyavaradhan, S. K.; Ambily, P. S.; Prem, P. R.; and Ghodke, S. B., “Test Methods for 3D Printable Concrete,” Automation in Construction, V. 142, 2022, p. 104529. doi: 10.1016/j.autcon.2022.104529
49. Le, T. T.; Austin, S. A.; Lim, S.; Buswell, R. A.; Law, R.; Gibb, A. G.; and Thorpe, T., “Hardened Properties of High-Performance Printing Concrete,” Cement and Concrete Research, V. 42, No. 3, 2012, pp. 558-566. doi: 10.1016/j.cemconres.2011.12.003
50. Guteta, L. E.; Menda, S.; Poudel, S.; Useldinger-Hoefs, J.; Gedafa, D. S.; and Dockter, B., “Effect of Coal Bottom Ash and Coal Bottom Slag on Fresh, Mechanical, and Durability Properties of Concrete,” International Conference on Transportation and Development 2024, June 2024, pp. 197-208.
51. Tao, Y.; Rahul, A. V.; Lesage, K.; Van Tittelboom, K.; Yuan, Y.; and De Schutter, G., “Mechanical and Microstructural Properties of 3D Printable Concrete in the Context of the Twin-Pipe Pumping Strategy,” Cement and Concrete Composites, V. 125, 2022, p. 104324. doi: 10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2021.104324
52. Hong, S. H.; Choi, J. S.; Yoo, S. J.; Yoo, D. Y.; and Yoon, Y. S., “Reinforcing Effect of CNT on the Microstructure and Creep Properties of High-Strength Lightweight Concrete,” Construction and Building Materials, V. 428, 2024, p. 136294. doi: 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2024.136294
53. Hasani, A., “Investigating the Potential of 3D Concrete Printing for Unreinforced Structures,” master’s thesis, University of North Dakota, Grand Forks, ND, 2024, https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&as_sdt=7%2C35&q=Investigating+the+Potential+of+3D+Concrete+Printing+for+Unreinforced+Structures&btnG=. (last accessed Sept. 30, 2025)