Title:
Physical Salt Attack on Concrete: Mechanisms, Influential Factors, and Protection
Author(s):
M. R. Sakr, M. T. Bassuoni, R. D. Hooton, T. Drimalas, H. Haynes, and K. J. Folliard
Publication:
Materials Journal
Volume:
117
Issue:
6
Appears on pages(s):
253-268
Keywords:
durability; physical salt attack; protection; salt hydration distress; salt weathering; testing
DOI:
10.14359/51727015
Date:
11/1/2020
Abstract:
Physical salt attack (PSA) is a potential deterioration mechanism in porous materials, including concrete, exposed to salt-laden environments. Damage occurs as salt crystals grow in the near-surface pores causing tensile stresses on the pore walls higher than
the tensile capacity of concrete, which can lead to surface scaling similar in appearance to that of freezing-and-thawing damage. This paper compiles, synthesizes, and analyzes current knowledge/research on this topic in terms of the mechanisms of damage, test procedures, damage assessment methods, most influential factors, protection against PSA, and code/guideline provisions. Moreover, key aspects that require further investigation are highlighted, along with a proposed classification for the resistance of concrete to PSA and mitigation strategy.
Related References:
1. Doehne, E., “Salt Weathering: A Selective Review,” Geological Society, V. 205, 2002, pp. 51-64.
2. Haynes, H., and Bassuoni, M. T., “Physical Salt Attack on Concrete,” Concrete International, V. 33, No. 11, Nov. 2011, pp. 38-42.
3. Rodriguez-Navarro, C., and Doehne, E., “Salt Weathering: Influence of Evaporation Rate, Supersaturation and Crystallization Pattern,” Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, V. 24, No. 3, 1999, pp. 191-209. doi: 10.1002/(SICI)1096-9837(199903)24:33.0.CO;2-G
4. Folliard, K. J., and Sandberg, P., “Mechanisms of Concrete Deterioration by Sodium Sulfate Crystallization,” Durability of Concrete—Proceedings of the Third CANMET-ACI International Conference, SP-145, American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, 1994, pp. 933-945.
5. Haynes, H.; O’Neill, R.; and Mehta, P. K., “Concrete Deterioration from Physical Attack by Salts,” Concrete International, V. 18, No. 1, Jan. 1996, pp. 63-68.
6. Flatt, R. J., “Salt Damage in Porous Materials: How High Supersaturations Are Generated,” Journal of Crystal Growth, V. 242, No. 3-4, 2002, pp. 435-454. doi: 10.1016/S0022-0248(02)01429-X
7. Neville, A., “The Confused World of Sulfate Attack on Concrete,” Cement and Concrete Research, V. 34, No. 8, 2004, pp. 1275-1296. doi: 10.1016/j.cemconres.2004.04.004
8. ACI Committee 201, “Guide to Durable Concrete (ACI 201.2R-16),” American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, 2016, 84 pp.
9. Stark, D., “Durability of Concrete in Sulfate-Rich Soils (RD O97),” Portland Cement Association, Skokie, IL, 1989, 14 pp.
10. Stark, D., “Performance of Concrete in Sulfate Environments (RD 129),” Portland Cement Association, Skokie, IL, 2002, 23 pp.
11. Hansen, W. C., “The Chemistry of Sulphate-Resisting Portland Cements,” Performance of Concrete, Thorvaldson Symposium, E. G. Swenson, ed., University of Toronto Press, Toronto, ON, 1968, pp. 18-55.
12. Price, G. C., and Peterson, R., “Experience with Concrete in Sulphate Environments in Western Canada,” Performance of Concrete, Thorvaldson Symposium, E. G. Swenson, ed., University of Toronto Press, Toronto, ON, Canada, 1968, pp. 93-112.
13. Hamilton, J. J., and Handegord, G. O., “The Performance of Ordinary Portland Cement Concrete in Prairie Soils of High Sulfate Content,” Performance of Concrete, Thorvaldson Symposium, E. G. Swenson, ed., University of Toronto Press, Toronto, ON, Canada, 1968, pp. 135-158.
14. Tuthill, L. H., “Resistance to Chemical Attack (ASTM STP169A),” Significance of Tests and Properties of Concrete and Concrete-Making Materials, R. Mielenz, D. Bloem, L. Gregg, L. Gregg, C. Kesler, and W. Price, eds., ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 1978, pp. 369-387.
15. Reading, T. J., “Physical Aspects of Sodium Sulfate Attack on Concrete,” Sulfate Resistance of Concrete, SP-77, American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, 1982, pp. 75-81.
16. St John, D. A., “An Unusual Case of Ground Water Sulphate Attack on Concrete,” Cement and Concrete Research, V. 12, No. 5, 1982, pp. 633-639. doi: 10.1016/0008-8846(82)90025-4
17. Novak, G. A., and Colville, A. A., “Efflorescent Mineral Assemblages Associated with Cracked and Degraded Residential Concrete Foundations in Southern California,” Cement and Concrete Research, V. 19, No. 1, 1989, pp. 1-6. doi: 10.1016/0008-8846(89)90059-8
18. Haynes, H., “Sulfate Attack on Concrete: Laboratory vs. Field Experience,” Concrete International, V. 24, No. 7, July 2002, pp. 64-70.
19. Haynes, H.; O’Neill, R.; Neff, M.; and Mehta, P. K., “Salt Weathering Distress on Concrete Exposed to Sodium Sulfate Environment,” ACI Materials Journal, V. 105, No. 1, Jan.-Feb. 2008, pp. 35-43.
20. Haynes, H.; O’Neill, R.; Neff, M.; and Mehta, P. K., “Salt Weathering of Concrete by Sodium Carbonate and Sodium Chloride,” ACI Materials Journal, V. 107, No. 3, May-June 2010, pp. 258-266.
21. Yoshida, N.; Matsunami, Y.; Nagayama, M.; and Sakai, E., “Salt Weathering in Residential Concrete Foundations Exposed to Sulfate-Bearing Ground,” Journal of Advanced Concrete Technology, V. 8, No. 2, 2010, pp. 121-134. doi: 10.3151/jact.8.121
22. Long, G. C.; Xie, Y. J.; Deng, D. H.; and Li, X. K., “Deterioration of Concrete in Railway Tunnel Suffering from Sulfate Attack,” Journal of Central South University of Technology, V. 18, No. 3, 2011, pp. 881-888. doi: 10.1007/s11771-011-0777-4
23. Liu, Z.; Zhang, F.; Deng, D.; Xie, Y.; Long, G.; and Tang, X., “Physical Sulfate Attack on Concrete Lining–A Field Case Analysis,” Case Studies in Construction Materials, V. 6, 2017, pp. 206-212. doi: 10.1016/j.cscm.2017.04.002
24. Florinsky, I. V.; Eilers, R. G.; and Lelyk, G. W., “Prediction of Soil Salinity Risk by Digital Terrain Modeling in the Canadian Prairies,” Canadian Journal of Soil Science, V. 80, No. 3, 2000, pp. 455-463. doi: 10.4141/S99-093
25. Rasheeduzzafar, D.; Dakhil, H.; and Bader, M. A., “Toward Solving the Concrete Deterioration Problem in the Gulf Region,” Arabian Journal for Science and Engineering, V. 11, 1984, pp. 129-146.
26. Bates, S. J., “A Critical Evaluation of Salt Weathering Impacts on Building Materials at Jazirat Al Hamra, UAE,” Geoverse, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford, UK, 2010, https://www.brookes.ac.uk/geoverse/original-papers/a-critical-evaluation-of-salt-weathering-impacts-on-building-materials-at-jazirat-al-hamra,-uae/.
27. Cooke, R. U., and Gibbs, G. B., “Crumbling Heritage?: Studies of Stone Weathering in Polluted Atmospheres,” National Power and Powergen, London, UK, 1995.
28. Thaulow, N., and Sahu, S., “Mechanism of Concrete Deterioration due to Salt Crystallization,” Materials Characterization, V. 53, No. 2-4, 2004, pp. 123-127. doi: 10.1016/j.matchar.2004.08.013
29. Rodriguez-Navarro, C.; Doehne, E.; and Sebastian, E., “How Does Sodium Sulfate Crystallize? Implications for the Decay and Testing of Building Materials,” Cement and Concrete Research, V. 30, No. 10, 2000, pp. 1527-1534. doi: 10.1016/S0008-8846(00)00381-1
30. Bland, W., and Rolls, D., “Weathering: An Introduction to the Scientific Principles,” Oxford University Press, New York, 1998.
31. Johannessen, C. L.; Feiereisen, J. J.; and Wells, A. K., “Weathering of Ocean Cliffs by Salt Expansion in Mid-Latitude Coastal Environment,” Shore and Beach, V. 50, 1982, pp. 26-34.
32. Bassuoni, M. T., and Rahman, M. M., “Response of Concrete to Accelerated Physical Salt Attack Exposure,” Cement and Concrete Research, V. 79, 2016, pp. 395-408. doi: 10.1016/j.cemconres.2015.02.006
33. Steiger, M., “Crystal Growth in Porous Materials-II: Influence of Crystal Size on the Crystallization Pressure,” Journal of Crystal Growth, V. 282, No. 3-4, 2005, pp. 470-481. doi: 10.1016/j.jcrysgro.2005.05.008
34. Scherer, G. W., “Stress from Crystallization of Salt,” Cement and Concrete Research, V. 34, No. 9, 2004, pp. 1613-1624. doi: 10.1016/j.cemconres.2003.12.034
35. Correns, C. W., “Growth and Dissolution of Crystals under Linear Pressure,” Discussions of the Faraday Society, V. 5, 1949, pp. 267-271. doi: 10.1039/df9490500267
36. Zhutovsky, S., and Hooton, R. D., “Accelerated Testing of Cementitious Materials for Resistance to Physical Sulfate Attack,” Construction and Building Materials, V. 145, 2017, pp. 98-106. doi: 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2017.03.239
37. Zhutovsky, S., and Hooton, R. D., “Experimental Study on Physical Sulfate Salt Attack,” Materials and Structures, V. 50, No. 1, 2017. doi: 10.1617/s11527-016-0936-z
38. Goudie, A. S., “Salt Weathering Simulation Using a Single-Immersion Technique,” Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, V. 18, No. 4, 1993, pp. 369-376. doi: 10.1002/esp.3290180406
39. Bassuoni, M. T., and Nehdi, M. L., “Durability of Self-Consolidating Concrete to Different Exposure Regimes of Sodium Sulfate Attack,” Materials and Structures, V. 42, No. 8, 2009, pp. 1039-1057. doi: 10.1617/s11527-008-9442-2
40. Benavente, D.; Cueto, N.; Martínez-Martínez, J.; Garcia del Cura, M.; and Cañaveras, J. C., “The Influence of Petrophysical Properties on the Salt Weathering of Porous Building Rocks,” Environmental Geology, V. 52, No. 2, 2007, pp. 215-224. doi: 10.1007/s00254-006-0475-y
41. ASTM C672/C672M-12, “Standard Test Method for Scaling Resistance of Concrete Surfaces Exposed to Deicing Chemicals,” ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2012, 3 pp.
42. Hartell, J. A.; Boyd, A. J.; and Ferraro, C. C., “Sulfate Attack on Concrete: Effect of Partial Immersion,” Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, ASCE, V. 23, No. 5, 2011, pp. 572-579. doi: 10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0000208
43. Nehdi, M. L.; Suleiman, A. R.; and Soliman, A. M., “Investigation of Concrete Exposed to Dual Sulfate Attack,” Cement and Concrete Research, V. 64, 2014, pp. 42-53. doi: 10.1016/j.cemconres.2014.06.002
44. Suleiman, A. R.; Soliman, A. M.; and Nehdi, M. L., “Effect of Surface Treatment on Durability of Concrete Exposed to Physical Sulfate Attack,” Construction and Building Materials, V. 73, Dec, 2014, pp. 674-681. doi: 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2014.10.006
45. Obla, K., and O’Neill, R., “Criteria for Selecting Mixtures Resistant to Physical Salt Attack,” Sulfate Attack on Concrete: A Holistic Perspective, SP-317, M. T. Bassuoni, R. Hooton, and T. Drimalas, eds., American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, 2017, pp. 1-20.
46. Chen, F.; Gao, J.; Qi, B.; and Shen, D., “Deterioration Mechanism of Plain and Blended Cement Mortars Partially Exposed to Sulfate Attack,” Construction and Building Materials, V. 154, 2017, pp. 849-856. doi: 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2017.08.017
47. Lee, B. Y., and Kurtis, K. E., “Effect of Pore Structure on Salt Crystallization Damage of Cement-Based Materials: Consideration of w/b and Nanoparticle Use,” Cement and Concrete Research, V. 98, 2017, pp. 61-70. doi: 10.1016/j.cemconres.2017.04.002
48. Irassar, E.; Di Maio, A.; and Batic, O., “Sulfate Attack on Concrete with Mineral Admixtures,” Cement and Concrete Research, V. 26, No. 1, 1996, pp. 113-123. doi: 10.1016/0008-8846(95)00195-6
49. Goudie, A. S., and Viles, H. A., “The Nature and Pattern of Debris Liberation by Salt Weathering: A Laboratory Study,” Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, V. 20, No. 5, 1995, pp. 437-449. doi: 10.1002/esp.3290200505
50. Haynes, H., “ASTM C 88 Test on Soundness of Aggregate Using Sodium Sulfate or Magnesium Sulfate: A Study of the Mechanisms of Damage,” Journal of ASTM International, V. 2, No. 1, 2005, pp. 1-17.
51. ASTM C88-13, “Standard Test Method for Soundness of Aggregates by Use of Sodium Sulfate or Magnesium Sulfate,” ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2013, 5 pp.
52. Goudie, A. S., “Laboratory Simulation of ‘the Wick Effect’ in Salt Weathering of Rock,” Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, V. 11, No. 3, 1986, pp. 275-285. doi: 10.1002/esp.3290110305
53. Benavente, D.; Garcia del Cura, M.; Bernabéu, A.; and Ordóñez, S., “Quantification of Salt Weathering in Porous Stones Using an Experimental Continuous Partial Immersion Method,” Engineering Geology, V. 59, No. 3-4, 2001, pp. 313-325. doi: 10.1016/S0013-7952(01)00020-5
54. Wilson, R., and Cleve, A., “Brief Summary of Tests of the Effect of Sulfate Soils and Waters on Concrete,” Report of the Director of Research, Portland Cement Association, Skokie, IL, 1928.
55. Drimalas, T., “Laboratory and Field Evaluations of External Sulfate Attack,” PhD thesis, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, 2007.
56. Ferraris, C. F.; Stutzman, P. E.; and Snyder, K. A., “Sulfate Resistance of Concrete: A New Approach (RD 2486),” Portland Cement Association, Skokie, IL, 2006.
57. Sakr, M. R.; Bassuoni, M. T.; and Taha, M. R., “Effect of Coatings on Concrete Resistance to Physical Salt Attack,” ACI Materials Journal, V. 116, No. 6, Nov. 2019, pp. 255-267. doi: 10.14359/51718058
58. Lowe, T. E., “An Investigative Study on Physical Sulfate Attack and Alkali-Silica Reaction Test Methods,” MSc thesis, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, 2011.
59. Clement, J. C., “Laboratory and Field Evaluations of External Sulfate Attack, Phase II,” MSc thesis, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, 2009.
60. Aguayo, F., “External Sulfate Attack of Concrete: An Accelerated Test Method, Mechanisms, and Mitigation Techniques,” PhD thesis, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, 2016.
61. Suleiman, A. R., and Nehdi, M. L., “Exploring Effects of Supplementary Cementitious Materials in Concrete Exposed to Physical Salt Attack,” Magazine of Concrete Research, V. 69, No. 11, 2017, pp. 576-585. doi: 10.1680/jmacr.16.00406
62. Najjar, M. F.; Nehdi, M. L.; Soliman, A. M.; and Azabi, T. M., “Damage Mechanisms of Two-Stage Concrete Exposed to Chemical and Physical Sulfate Attack,” Construction and Building Materials, V. 137, 2017, pp. 141-152. doi: 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2017.01.112
63. Tiburzi, N. B., “Mechanisms of Deterioration of Portland-Limestone Cement Blended Systems Exposed to External Sulfates,” PhD dissertation, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, 2018.
64. ACI Committee 318, “Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete and Commentary (ACI 318-14),” American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, 2014, 520 pp.
65. Nadelman, E. I., “Hydration and Microstructural Development of Portland Limestone Cement-Based Materials,” PhD dissertation, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, 2016.
66. Yang, J.; Wang, P.; Li, H.; and Yang, X., “Sulfate Attack Resistance of Air-Entrained Silica Fume Concrete under Dry-Wet Cycle Condition,” Journal of Wuhan University of Technology-Materials Science Edition, V. 31, No. 4, 2016, pp. 857-864. doi: 10.1007/s11595-016-1459-8
67. Mehta, P. K., and Monteiro, P. J. M., Concrete: Microstructure, Properties, and Materials, McGraw-Hill Education, New York, 2013.
68. Scherer, G. W., “Crystallization in Pores,” Cement and Concrete Research, V. 29, No. 8, 1999, pp. 1347-1358. doi: 10.1016/S0008-8846(99)00002-2
69. Diamond, S., “Mercury Porosimetry: An Inappropriate Method for the Measurement of Pore Size Distributions in Cement-Based Materials,” Cement and Concrete Research, V. 30, No. 10, 2000, pp. 1517-1525. doi: 10.1016/S0008-8846(00)00370-7
70. Rodriguez-Navarro, C.; Doehne, E.; Ginell, W. S.; and Sebastian, E., “Salt Growth in Capillary and Porous Media,” Rehabilitation of Buildings and Architectural Heritage, E. Sebastian, I. Valverde, and U. Zezza, eds., Universidad de Granada, Granada, Spain, 1996, pp. 509-514.
71. Wolf, A. V., Aqueous Solutions and Body Fluids: Their Concentrative Properties and Conversion Tables, Hoeber Medical Division, Harper & Row, New York, 1966.
72. Davis, D. S., and Kulwiec, R. A., Chemical Processing Nomographs, Chemical Publishing Company, New York, 1969.
73. Aye, T., and Oguchi, C. T., “Resistance of Plain and Blended Cement Mortars Exposed to Severe Sulfate Attacks,” Construction and Building Materials, V. 25, No. 6, 2011, pp. 2988-2996. doi: 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2010.11.106
74. Sperling, C. B., and Cooke, R. V., “Laboratory Simulation of Rock Weathering by Salt Crystallization and Hydration Processes in Hot, Arid Environments,” Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, V. 10, No. 6, 1985, pp. 541-555. doi: 10.1002/esp.3290100603
75. Goudie, A., and Viles, H., Salt Weathering Hazards, John Wiley & Sons, Chichester, West Sussex, UK, 1997, 241 pp.
76. Haynes, B., “Preliminary Tests of Repair Material for Physical Sulfate Attack,” Technical Session on Physical Salt Attack of Concrete Parts I & II, ACI Committee 201, ACI Spring 2012 Convention—The Art of Concrete, Dallas, TX, 2012.
77. Price, A. R., “A Field Trial of Waterproofing Systems for Concrete Bridge Decks,” Proceedings, International Conference Held at the University of Dundee, UK, 1989, pp. 333-346.
78. Moreira, P. M.; Aguiar, J. B.; and Camoes, A., “Systems for Superficial Protection of Concretes,” International Symposium Polymers in Concrete, University of Minho, Portugal, 2006, pp. 225-236.
79. ACI Committee 201, “Guide to Durable Concrete (ACI 201.2R-08),” American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, 2008, 49 pp.
80. ACI Committee 301, “Specifications for Structural Concrete (ACI 301-16),” American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, 2016, 64 pp.
81. ACI Committee 350, “Code Requirements for Environmental Engineering Concrete Structures (ACI 350-06),” American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, 2006, 488 pp.
82. Canadian Standards Association, “Concrete Materials and Methods of Concrete Construction/Test Methods and Standard Practices for Concrete (CSA A23.1-19),” CSA, Toronto, ON, Canada, 2019, 880 pp.
83. Canadian Standards Association, “Concrete Materials and Methods of Concrete Construction/Test Methods and Standard Practices for Concrete (CSA A23.1-42),” CSA, Toronto, ON, Canada, 1942.
84. Saudi Buildings Code National Committee, “Saudi Concrete Structures (SBC 304),” SBC, Riyadh, KSA, 2018.
85. British Standards Institution, “Concrete—Specification, Performance, Production and Conformity (BS EN 206),” BSI, London, 2013.
86. Standards Association of Australia, “ Australian Standard: Concrete Structures (AS 3600),” Standards Australia, Sydney, Australia, 2009.
87. BRE Special Digest 1, “Concrete in Aggressive Ground,” Building Research Establishment, Hertfordshire, UK, 2005.