Title:
Experimental Study on Shear Resistance of Three-Dimensional Assembled Retaining Walls
Author(s):
T. H.-K. Kang, S.-H. Park, K.-Y. Choi, D.-S. Jung, B. H. Nam, and S. Hong
Publication:
Structural Journal
Volume:
123
Issue:
4
Appears on pages(s):
321-334
Keywords:
direct shear test; mechanical interlocking; shear strength evaluation; structural stability assessment; three-dimensional (3-D) assembled retaining wall block
DOI:
10.14359/51749555
Date:
7/1/2026
Abstract:
This study presents the development of a novel three-dimensional (3-D) assembled retaining wall block system, in which individual blocks are interconnected in the upper-lower, left-right, and front-back directions. Unlike conventional segmental block gravity walls that rely solely on horizontal shear keys between upper and lower blocks, the proposed 3-D system is designed to resist shear forces across the entire block cross section through comprehensive mechanical interlocking. To evaluate its structural performance, direct shear tests were conducted, focusing on two key parameters: the block arrangement between the front and back sides, and the frictional resistance between the block and the foundation concrete. Experimental results demonstrated that the proposed system exhibits significantly enhanced shear strength compared to conventional retaining wall systems. Based on these findings, shear strength estimation formulas were developed to support structural design and stability assessment. The proposed 3-D block system not only improves the mechanical integrity of retaining walls but also holds potential for enhanced resilience against complex geotechnical challenges due to climate change. These results suggest that the new system provides a reliable and robust alternative for the design of segmental retaining walls requiring high shear resistance and long-term stability.
Related References:
1. Bathurst, R. J., and Simac, M. R., “Geosynthetic Reinforced Soil Segmental Retaining Wall Structures in North America,” Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Geotextiles, Geomembranes and Related Products, Singapore, 1994, pp. 451-456.
2. Koerner, R. M., and Soong, T. Y., “Geosynthetic Reinforced Segmental Retaining Walls,” Geotextiles and Geomembranes, V. 19, No. 6, 2001, pp. 359-386. doi: 10.1016/S0266-1144(01)00012-7
3. Kim, J. M.; Cho, S. D.; Oh, S. Y.; Lee, D. Y.; and Baek, Y. S., “Evaluation of Friction Characteristics of Reinforced Soil Retaining Wall Facing Blocks,” Journal of the Korean Geotechnical Society, V. 21, No. 1, 2005, pp. 51-58.
4. Shi, T.; Zhang, X.; Hao, H.; and Xie, G., “Experimental and Numerical Studies of the Shear Resistance Capacities of Interlocking Blocks,” Journal of Building Engineering, V. 44, 2021, p. 103230. doi: 10.1016/j.jobe.2021.103230
5. Lee, S. H., and Kim, B. I., “Shear Characteristics of Contact Surfaces of Concrete Blocks,” Journal of the Korean Geotechnical Society, V. 24, No. 6, 2008, pp. 69-75.
6. Casapulla, C.; Mousavian, E.; Argiento, L. U.; and Ceraldi, C., “Experimental Investigation on the Torsion-Shear Behaviour at the Interfaces of Interlocking Masonry Block Assemblages,” 12th International Conference on Structural Analysis of Historical Constructions (SAHC), 2020.
7. Hwang, S.; Park, B.; Woo, Y. H.; Park, S.; and Kim, W., “Numerical Analytic Study Considering the Behavior Characteristics between Individual Blocks in Block-Type Retaining Walls,” The Journal of Engineering Geology, V. 31, No. 4, 2021, pp. 579-588. doi: 10.9720/kseg.2021.4.579
8. Mousavian, R.; Bagi, K.; and Casapulla, C., “Torsion–Shear Behaviour at Interlocking Joints: Calibration of Discrete Element-Deformable Models Using Experimental and Numerical Analyses,” International Journal of Architectural Heritage, V. 17, No. 1, 2023, pp. 212-229. doi: 10.1080/15583058.2022.2101034
9. Dakoulas, P.; Vazouras, P.; Kallioglou, P.; and Gazetas, G., “Effective-Stress Seismic Analysis of a Gravity Multi-Block Quay Wall,” Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering, V. 115, 2018, pp. 378-393. doi: 10.1016/j.soildyn.2018.08.032
10. Baziar, M. H.; Sanaie, M.; Amirabadi, O. E.; Khoshniazpirkoohi, A.; and Azizkandi, A. S., “Mitigation of Hunchbacked Gravity Quay Wall Displacement Due to Dynamic Loading Using Shaking Table Tests,” Ocean Engineering, V. 216, 2020, p. 108056. doi: 10.1016/j.oceaneng.2020.108056
11. Gaudio, D.; Masini, L.; and Rampello, S., “A Performance-Based Approach to Design Reinforced-Earth Retaining Walls,” Geotextiles and Geomembranes, V. 46, No. 4, 2018, pp. 470-485. doi: 10.1016/j.geotexmem.2018.04.003
12. Yenginar, Y., and Özkan, İ., “Local Site Conditions and Hydromechanical Effects in Service Life of Cantilever Retaining Walls,” Engineering Failure Analysis, V. 153, 2023, p. 107536. doi: 10.1016/j.engfailanal.2023.107536
13. Stathas, D.; Wang, J. P.; and Ling, H. I., “Behavior of Concave Segmental Soil Retaining Wall Using Porcupine Blocks,” International Journal of Geomechanics, ASCE, V. 21, No. 8, 2021, p. 04021138. doi: 10.1061/(ASCE)GM.1943-5622.0002082
14. Javadi, M.; Hassanli, R.; Rahman, M. M.; and Karim, M. R., “Experimental Study on Cyclic Behavior of Post-Tensioned Segmental Retaining Walls (PSRWs),” Engineering Structures, V. 229, 2021, p. 111619. doi: 10.1016/j.engstruct.2020.111619
15. McGuire, M. P.; Yust, M. B. S.; and Shippee, B. J., “Application of Terrestrial Lidar and Photogrammetry to the As-Built Verification and Displacement Monitoring of a Segmental Retaining Wall,” Geotechnical Frontiers, V. 2017, 2017, pp. 461-471. doi: 10.1061/9780784480458.047
16. Han, X.; Yan, J.; Liu, M.; Huo, L.; and Li, J., “Experimental Study on Large-Scale 3D Printed Concrete Walls under Axial Compression,” Automation in Construction, V. 133, 2022, p. 103993. doi: 10.1016/j.autcon.2021.103993
17. Baneshi, V.; Dehghan, S. M.; and Hassanli, R., “An Experimental Study on the Behavior of Interlocking Masonry Blocks Manufactured Using 3D Printed Mold,” Advances in Structural Engineering, V. 26, No. 2, 2023, pp. 295-307. doi: 10.1177/13694332221126595
18. Sun, W.; Yan, C.; Xu, W.; Shi, Y.; Zhang, Z.; and Xie, Y., “Deformation of Geogrid-Reinforced Segmental Retaining Wall Due to Insufficient Compaction of Loess Backfill: Case Study in Shaanxi Province, China,” Journal of Performance of Constructed Facilities, ASCE, V. 33, No. 6, 2019, p. 04019071. doi: 10.1061/(ASCE)CF.1943-5509.0001346
19. Wang, L.; Liu, H.; and Wang, C., “Earth Pressure Coefficients for Reinforcement Loads of Vertical Geosynthetic-Reinforced Soil Retaining Walls under Working Stress Conditions,” Geotextiles and Geomembranes, V. 46, No. 4, 2018, pp. 486-496. doi: 10.1016/j.geotexmem.2018.04.001
20. Jia, X.; Xu, J.; and Sun, Y., “Deformation Analysis of Reinforced Retaining Wall Using Separate Finite Element,” Discrete Dynamics in Nature and Society, V. 2018, No. 1, 2018, p. 6946492. doi: 10.1155/2018/6946492
21. Chen, J.; Gao, R.; Liu, Y.; Shi, Z.; and Zhang, R., “Numerical Exploration of the Behavior of Coal-Fouled Ballast Subjected to Direct Shear Test,” Construction and Building Materials, V. 273, 2021, p. 121927. doi: 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.121927
22. Zhang, D.; Feng, P.; Zhou, P.; Xu, W.; and Ma, G., “3D Printed Concrete Walls Reinforced with Flexible FRP Textile: Automatic Construction, Digital Rebuilding, and Seismic Performance,” Engineering Structures, V. 291, 2023, p. 116488. doi: 10.1016/j.engstruct.2023.116488
23. Thulasibai, A. S. R.; Velayudhan, S.; Pathath, M.; Lekshmipathy, J.; and Visvanathan, A., “Experimental and Numerical Evaluation of the Parameters Influencing the Shear-Stress Behavior of Interlocking Paver Blocks–Bedding Sand Interface Using Large-Scale Direct Shear Test,” Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, ASCE, V. 33, No. 6, 2021, p. 04021113. doi: 10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0003724
24. Malekmohammadi, K., and Damians, I. P., “A Bibliometric Review of Reinforced Soil Wall Research Topics,” International Journal of Geosynthetics and Ground Engineering, V. 10, No. 3, 2024, p. 42. doi: 10.1007/s40891-024-00537-3
25. ASTM D6916-18, “Standard Test Method for Determining the Shear Strength between Segmental Concrete Units (Modular Concrete Blocks),” ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2018.
26. Redi-Rock, 2011, “Results of Redi-Rock 28 Inch PC Block Unit (6 Inch Dome) Interface Shear Capacity Testing,” Redi-Rock International, Harbor Springs, MI.
27. SI Geosolutions, “Cornerstone Segmental Retaining Wall Unit Shear Strength Test,” NCMA Research and Development Laboratory, Herndon, VA, 2001.