Title:
Role of Supplementary Cementitious Materials in Bacteria-Based Self-Healing Concrete
Author(s):
Goli Nossoni and Daniel Hussey
Publication:
Materials Journal
Volume:
123
Issue:
3
Appears on pages(s):
39-50
Keywords:
bacteria encapsulation; crack width; fly ash content; self-healing concrete
DOI:
10.14359/51749499
Date:
5/1/2026
Abstract:
This study evaluated the effect of Class F fly ash (5, 10, 15, and 20%) and silica fume (20%) as partial cement replacements on bacterial crack healing. Concrete cylinders were prepared, cracked into 25.4 mm disks, and submerged in fresh water. Healing progress was monitored over 18 weeks using microscopy and quantified through a healing index.
Results showed that bacterial activity substantially improved healing compared to natural hydration in control specimens. Fly ash replacement did not prevent healing, and several disks across all percentages achieved complete crack closure. However, higher fly ash levels shortened the duration of bacterial activity, indicating sensitivity to calcium availability. At 20% fly ash, healing progressed more slowly but remained active at 18 weeks. In contrast, specimens containing 20% silica exhibited significantly lower healing efficiency, with few disks achieving full closure and overall lower healing indexes.
These results confirm that bacteria-based self-healing concrete remains effective with fly ash but is constrained by high silica fume content due to very low to zero calcium content in silica fume. The findings suggest that lower calcium levels in supplementary cementitious materials (SCM) replacements, caused by higher fly ash content or the use of silica fume, may significantly influence bacterial healing.
Related References:
1. Gagg, C. R., “Cement and Concrete as an Engineering Material: An Historic Appraisal and Case Study Analysis,” Engineering Failure Analysis, V. 40, May 2014, pp. 114-140.
2. USGS, “Mineral Commodity Summaries: Cement,” U.S. Geological Survey, U.S. Department of the Interior, Reston, VA, 2025, 2 pp.
3. ACI Committee 318, “Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete (ACI 318-14) and Commentary (ACI 318R-14),” American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, 2014, 520 pp.
4. Jonkers, H. M., “Bacteria-Based Self-Healing Concrete,” HERON, V. 56, No. 1/2, 2011, pp. 1-12.
5. Khattab, I. M.; Shekha, H.; and Abdi, M. A., “Study on Self-Healing Concrete Types – A Review,” Sustainable Structures and Materials, An International Journal, V. 2, No. 1, 2019, pp. 76-87.
6. Hager, M. D.; Greil, P.; Leyens, C.; van der Zwaag, S.; and Schubert, U. S., “Self‐Healing Materials,” Advanced Materials, V. 22, No. 47, Dec. 2010, pp. 5424-5430. doi: 10.1002/adma.201003036
7. Li, V. C., and Herbert, E., “Robust Self-Healing Concrete for Sustainable Infrastructure,” Journal of Advanced Concrete Technology, V. 10, No. 6, 2012, pp. 207-218. doi: 10.3151/jact.10.207
8. Rosewitz, J. A.; Wang, S.; Scarlata, S. F.; and Rahbar, N., “An Enzymatic Self-Healing Cementitious Material,” Applied Materials Today, V. 23, June 2021, Article No. 101035. doi: 10.1016/j.apmt.2021.101035
9. Hilloulin, B.; Van Tittelboom, K.; Gruyaert, E.; De Belie, N.; and Loukili, A., “Design of Polymeric Capsules for Self-Healing Concrete,” Cement and Concrete Composites, V. 55, Jan. 2015, pp. 298-307. doi: 10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2014.09.022
10. Fang, X.; Pan, Z.; and Chen, A., “Analytical Models to Estimate Efficiency of Capsule-Based Self-Healing Cementitious Materials Considering Effect of Capsule Shell Thickness,” Construction and Building Materials, V. 274, Mar. 2021, Article No. 121999. doi: 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.121999
11. Mihashi, H., and Nishiwaki, T., “Development of Engineered Self-Healing and Self-Repairing Concrete-State-of-the-Art Report,” Journal of Advanced Concrete Technology, V. 10, No. 5, 2012, pp. 170-184. doi: 10.3151/jact.10.170
12. de Rooij, M.; Van Tittelboom, K.; De Belie, N.; and Schlangen, E., eds., Self-Healing Phenomena in Cement-Based Materials: State-of-the-Art Report of RILEM Technical Committee 221-SHC: Self-Healing Phenomena in Cement-Based Materials, Springer, Dordrecht, the Netherlands, 2013, 266 pp.
13. Kishi, T.; Ahn, T.; Hosoda, A.; Suzuki, S.; and Takaoka, H., “Self-Healing Behaviour by Cementitious Recrystallization of Cracked Concrete Incorporating Expansive Agent,” Proceedings of the First International Conference on Self-Healing Materials (ICSHM2007), S. van der Zwaag, ed., Noordwijk, the Netherlands, April 18-20, 2007.
14. Jefferson, A.; Joseph, C.; Lark, R.; Isaacs, B.; Dunn, S.; and Weager, B., “A New System for Crack Closure of Cementitious Materials Using Shrinkable Polymers,” Cement and Concrete Research, V. 40, No. 5, May 2010, pp. 795-801. doi: 10.1016/j.cemconres.2010.01.004
15. Ahmad, I.; Shokouhian, M.; Jenkins, M.; and McLemore, G. L., “Quantifying the Self-Healing Efficiency of Bioconcrete Using Bacillus subtilis Immobilized in Polymer-Coated Lightweight Expanded Clay Aggregates,” Buildings, V. 14, No. 12, Dec. 2024, Article No. 3916. doi: 10.3390/buildings14123916
16. Wong, P. Y.; Mal, J.; Sandak, A.; Luo, L.; Jian, J.; and Pradhan, N., “Advances in Microbial Self-Healing Concrete: A Critical Review of Mechanisms, Developments, and Future Directions,” Science of the Total Environment, V. 947, Oct. 2024, Article No. 174553. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.174553
17. Feng, J.; Chen, B.; Sun, W.; and Wang, Y., “Microbial Induced Calcium Carbonate Precipitation Study Using Bacillus subtilis with Application to Self-Healing Concrete Preparation and Characterization,” Construction and Building Materials, V. 280, Apr. 2021, Article No. 122460. doi: 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2021.122460
18. Jonkers, H. M.; Thijssen, A.; Muyzer, G.; Copuroglu, O.; and Schlangen, E., “Application of Bacteria as Self-Healing Agent for the Development of Sustainable Concrete,” Ecological Engineering, V. 36, No. 2, Feb. 2010, pp. 230-235. doi: 10.1016/j.ecoleng.2008.12.036
19. Schlangen, E., and Sangadji, S., “Addressing Infrastructure Durability and Sustainability by Self Healing Mechanisms - Recent Advances in Self-Healing Concrete and Asphalt,” The 2nd International Conference on Rehabilitation and Maintenance in Civil Engineering (ICRMCE), F. Nestmann, E. Schlangen, and S. As’ad, eds., Surakarta, Central Java, Indonesia, 2013, pp. 39-57.
20. Elgendy, I. M.; Elkaliny, N. E.; Saleh, H. M.; Darwish, G. O.; Almostafa, M. M.; Metwally, K.; Yahya, G.; and Mahmoud, Y. A.-G., “Bacteria-Powered Self-Healing Concrete: Breakthroughs, Challenges, and Future Prospects,” Journal of Industrial Microbiology and Biotechnology, V. 52, 2024, Article No. kuae051. doi: 10.1093/jimb/kuae051
21. ACI Committee 224, “Control of Cracking in Concrete Structures (ACI 224R-01) (Reapproved 2008),” American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, 2001, 46 pp.
22. Sahmaran, M.; Yildirim, G.; and Erdem, T. K., “Self-Healing Capability of Cementitious Composites Incorporating Different Supplementary Cementitious Materials,” Cement and Concrete Composites, V. 35, No. 1, Jan. 2013, pp. 89-101. doi: 10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2012.08.013
23. Nafees, A.; Amin, M. N.; Khan, K.; Nazir, K.; Ali, M.; Javed, M. F.; Aslam, F.; Musarat, M. A.; and Vatin, N. I., “Modeling of Mechanical Properties of Silica Fume-Based Green Concrete Using Machine Learning Techniques,” Polymers, V. 14, No. 1, Jan. 2022, Article No. 30.
24. Scrivener, K. L.; John, V. M.; and Gartner, E. M., “Eco-Efficient Cements: Potential Economically Viable Solutions for a Low-CO2 Cement-Based Materials Industry,” Cement and Concrete Research, V. 114, Dec. 2018, pp. 2-26. doi: 10.1016/j.cemconres.2018.03.015
25. Al-Zuheriy, A. S. J.; Al-Attar, T. S.; and Hamza, S. M., “The Effect of Nano-SiO2 Addition on the Properties of Pozzolime Concrete,” Journal of Engineering Science and Technology, V. S17, Feb. 2022, pp. 1-11.
26. Morsali, S.; Isildar, G. Y.; Zar gari, Z. H.; and Tahni, A., “The Application of Bacteria as a Main Factor in Self-Healing Concrete Technology,” Journal of Building Pathology and Rehabilitation, V. 11, No. 1, Jan. 2026, Article No. 39.
27. Al-Attar, T. S.; Al-Zuheriy, A. S. J.; and Hamza, S. M., “Optimum Steel Fiber Content of High Strength Pozzolime Concrete,” Engineering and Technology Journal, V. 39, No. 12, 2021, pp. 1869-1874. doi: 10.30684/etj.v39i12.2213
28. Souradeep, G., and Kua, H. W., “Encapsulation Technology and Techniques in Self-Healing Concrete,” Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, ASCE, V. 28, No. 12, Dec. 2016, p. 04016165. doi: 10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0001687
29. ACI Committee 232, “Use of Fly Ash in Concrete (ACI 232.2R-03),” American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, 2004, 41 pp.
30. ACI Committee 234, “Guide for the Use of Silica Fume in Concrete (ACI 234R-06) (Reapproved 2012),” American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, 2006, 63 pp.
31. Jonkers, H. M., and Schlangen, E., “A Two Component Bacteria-Based Self-Healing Concrete,” Concrete Repair, Rehabilitation and Retrofitting II, first edition, M. G. Alexander, H.-D. Beushausen, F. Dehn, and P. Moyo, eds., CRC Press, London, UK, 2008, 2 pp.
32. Mehta, P. K., and Monteiro, P. J. M., Concrete: Microstructure, Properties, and Materials, fourth edition, McGraw-Hill Education, New York, 2014.
33. Mors, R. M., and Jonkers, H. M., “Practical Approach for Production of Bacteria-Based Agent-Contained Light Weight Aggregates to Make Concrete Self-Healing,” Proceedings of the Fourth International Conference on Self-Healing Materials (ICSHM2013), N. De Belie, S. van der Zwaag, E. Gruyaert, K. Van Tittelboom, and B. Debbaut, eds., Ghent, Belgium, 2006, pp. 240-243.
34. Piggot, P. J., and Coote, J. G., “Genetic Aspects of Bacterial Endospore Formation,” Bacteriological Reviews, V. 40, No. 4, Dec. 1976, pp. 908-962. doi: 10.1128/br.40.4.908-962.1976
35. DSMZ, “List of Recommended Media for Microorganisms,” Leibniz Institute DSMZ-German Collection of Microorganisms and Cell Cultures GmbH, Braunschweig, Germany, 2007.
36. Nikon Instruments Inc., “NIS-Elements: Objectives & Calibration,” Melville, NY, 2012, https://www.gvsu.edu/cms4/asset/8FCAC028-902A-3EFC-5137403A360C8843/how_to_calibrate_0020.pdf. (last accessed Apr. 16, 2026)
37. Wiktor, V., and Jonkers, H. M., “Quantification of Crack-Healing in Novel Bacteria-Based Self-Healing Concrete,” Cement and Concrete Composites, V. 33, No. 7, Aug. 2011, pp. 763-770. doi: 10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2011.03.012