Title:
From Dry Flowability to Rheology: Advancing Earth-Based Paste Optimization
Author(s):
Mojtaba Kohandelnia and Ammar Yahia
Publication:
Materials Journal
Volume:
122
Issue:
6
Appears on pages(s):
31-46
Keywords:
clay; dry flowability characteristics; earthen construction; rheology; self-consolidating earth concrete (SCEC)
DOI:
10.14359/51749122
Date:
11/1/2025
Abstract:
Despite the advantageous features of earthen construction for sustainability, certain limitations arise, notably the time-intensive nature of the construction process. Some efforts have been made to achieve self-consolidating earth concrete (SCEC) by overcoming the presence of fine particles to achieve adequate rheology. The impacts of cement, metakaolin, and limestone filler on dry flowability characteristics, rheology, workability, and compressive strength of self-consolidating earth paste (SCEP) mixtures were assessed in this study. The investigated mixtures were proportioned with different clay compositions and polycarboxylate ether (PCE), with and without the initial addition of sodium hexametaphosphate (NaHMP) as a clay dispersant. It was revealed that the addition of NaHMP and metakaolin to the mixtures consisting of finer clay particles significantly increased the static yield stress, build-up index, critical shear strain, and storage modulus evolution. Finally, the contribution of dry flowability characteristics of the powders to the rheological properties of the SCEP mixtures was investigated to facilitate the selection process.
Related References:
1. Winnefeld, F.; Leemann, A.; German, A.; and Lothenbach, B., “CO2 Storage in Cement and Concrete by Mineral Carbonation,” Current Opinion in Green and Sustainable Chemistry, V. 38, Dec. 2022, Article No. 100672. doi: 10.1016/j.cogsc.2022.100672
2. Coelho, A., “Preliminary Study for Self-Sufficiency of Construction Materials in a Portuguese Region – Évora,” Journal of Cleaner Production, V. 112, Part 1, Jan. 2016, pp. 771-786. doi: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.06.113
3. Houben, H., and Guillaud, H., Earth Construction: A Comprehensive Guide, Intermediate Technology Publications, London, UK, 1994, 372 pp.
4. Van Damme, H., and Houben, H., “Earth Concrete. Stabilization Revisited,” Cement and Concrete Research, V. 114, Dec. 2018, pp. 90-102. doi: 10.1016/j.cemconres.2017.02.035
5. Hall, M., and Djerbib, Y., “Rammed Earth Sample Production: Context, Recommendations and Consistency,” Construction and Building Materials, V. 18, No. 4, May 2004, pp. 281-286. doi: 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2003.11.001
6. Kohandelnia, M.; Hosseinpoor, M.; Yahia, A.; and Belarbi, R., “Hygrothermal and Microstructural Characterization of Self-Consolidating Earth Concrete (SCEC),” Journal of Building Engineering, V. 69, June 2023, Article No. 106287. doi: 10.1016/j.jobe.2023.106287
7. Ouellet-Plamondon, C. M., and Habert, G., “Self-Compacted Clay Based Concrete (SCCC): Proof-of-Concept,” Journal of Cleaner Production, V. 117, Mar. 2016, pp. 160-168. doi: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.12.048
8. Kohandelnia, M., “Development of Self-Consolidating Earth Concrete (SCEC) with Improved Multifunctional Performance for Green Construction,” PhD dissertation, Université de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, QC, Canada, 2022, 290 pp.
9. Kohandelnia, M.; Zerzouri, M.; Yahia, A.; and Khayat, K. H., “Treatment and Activation Effects on Kaolinite-Based Earth Concrete,” Construction and Building Materials, V. 478, June 2025, Article No. 141380. doi: 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2025.141380
10. Kohandelnia, M.; Hosseinpoor, M.; Yahia, A.; and Belarbi, R., “A New Approach for Proportioning Self-Consolidating Earth Paste (SCEP) Using the Taguchi Method,” Construction and Building Materials, V. 347, Sept. 2022, Article No. 128579. doi: 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2022.128579
11. Walker, P.; Keable, R.; Martin, J.; and Maniatidis, V., Rammed Earth: Design and Construction Guidelines, BRE Bookshop, Watford, UK, 2005, 146 pp.
12. Kohandelnia, M.; Hosseinpoor, M.; and Yahia, A., “Sustainable Development with Earth Concrete,” Advances in Sustainable Concrete for Construction, A. Bahrami, ed., Springer, Cham, Switzerland, 2025, pp. 177-200.
13. Guihéneuf, S., “Formulation et Renforts de Blocs en Matériau Terre pour une Utilisation Structurelle,” PhD thesis, INSA Rennes, Rennes, France, 2020, 263 pp.
14. Kohandelnia, M.; Hosseinpoor, M.; Yahia, A.; and Belarbi, R., “Multiscale Investigation of Self-Consolidating Earthen Materials Using a Novel Concrete-Equivalent Mortar Approach,” Construction and Building Materials, V. 370, Mar. 2023, Article No. 130700. doi: 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2023.130700
15. Skempton, A. W., “The Colloidal ‘Activity’ of Clays,” Proceedings of the Third International Conference of Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Zurich, Switzerland, 1953, pp. 57-61.
16. Tang, O.-L., and Jiang, Q.-M., “Stability Analysis of Slope under Different Soil Nailing Parameters Based on the GeoStudio,” International Journal of Geohazards and Environment, V. 1, No. 2, 2015, pp. 88-92.
17. Chen, J. J.; Li, B. H.; Ng, P. L.; and Kwan, A. K. H., “Adding Granite Polishing Waste as Sand Replacement to Improve Packing Density, Rheology, Strength and Impermeability of Mortar,” Powder Technology, V. 364, Mar. 2020, pp. 404-415. doi: 10.1016/j.powtec.2020.02.012
18. Mostafa, A. M., and Yahia, A., “New Approach to Assess Build-Up of Cement-Based Suspensions,” Cement and Concrete Research, V. 85, July 2016, pp. 174-182. doi: 10.1016/j.cemconres.2016.03.005
19. Moeini, M. A.; Hosseinpoor, M.; and Yahia, A., “Effectiveness of the Rheometric Methods to Evaluate the Build-Up of Cementitious Mortars Used for 3D Printing,” Construction and Building Materials, V. 257, Oct. 2020, Article No. 119551. doi: 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.119551
20. Castellini, E.; Berthold, C.; Malferrari, D.; and Bernini, F., “Sodium Hexametaphosphate Interaction with 2:1 Clay Minerals Illite and Montmorillonite,” Applied Clay Science, V. 83-84, Oct. 2013, pp. 162-170. doi: 10.1016/j.clay.2013.08.031
21. Amorós, J. L.; Beltrán, V.; Sanz, V.; and Jarque, J. C., “Electrokinetic and Rheological Properties of Highly Concentrated Kaolin Dispersions: Influence of Particle Volume Fraction and Dispersant Concentration,” Applied Clay Science, V. 49, No. 1-2, June 2010, pp. 33-43. doi: 10.1016/j.clay.2010.03.020
22. Minke, G., Building With Earth: Design and Technology of a Sustainable Architecture, Birkhäuser Verlag GmbH, Basel, Switzerland, 2006, 199 pp.
23. Ouro Koura, B.-I.; Hosseinpoor, M.; Yahia, A.; Kadri, E.-H.; and Kaci, A., “A New Proportioning Approach of Low and Normal Binder Self-Consolidating Concrete Based on the Characteristics of Fine Mortar and Granular Skeleton,” Construction and Building Materials, V. 239, Apr. 2020, Article No. 117892. doi: 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.117892
24. Hosseinpoor, M.; Ouro Koura, B.-I.; and Yahia, A., “Rheo-Morphological Investigation of Static and Dynamic Stability of Self-Consolidating Concrete: A Biphasic Approach,” Cement and Concrete Composites, V. 121, Aug. 2021, Article No. 104072.
25. Dove, C. A.; Bradley, F. F.; and Patwardhan, S. V., “Seaweed Biopolymers as Additives for Unfired Clay Bricks,” Materials and Structures, V. 49, No. 11, Nov. 2016, pp. 4463-4482. doi: 10.1617/s11527-016-0801-0
26. Perrot, A.; Rangeard, D.; and Courteille, E., “3D Printing of Earth-Based Materials: Processing Aspects,” Construction and Building Materials, V. 172, May 2018, pp. 670-676. doi: 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.04.017
27. Matos, A. M., and Varum, H., “Self-Compacting Earth-Based Composites: Mixture Design and Multi-Performance Characterisation,” Buildings, V. 12, No. 5, May 2022, Article No. 612.
28. Ramezanianpour, A. A., and Bahrami Jovein, H., “Influence of Metakaolin as Supplementary Cementing Material on Strength and Durability of Concretes,” Construction and Building Materials, V. 30, May 2012, pp. 470-479. doi: 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2011.12.050
29. Shekarchi, M.; Bonakdar, A.; Bakhshi, M.; Mirdamadi, A.; and Mobasher, B., “Transport Properties in Metakaolin Blended Concrete,” Construction and Building Materials, V. 24, No. 11, Nov. 2010, pp. 2217-2223. doi: 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2010.04.035
30. Scrivener, K.; Martirena, F.; Bishnoi, S.; and Maity, S., “Calcined Clay Limestone Cements (LC3),” Cement and Concrete Research, V. 114, Dec. 2018, pp. 49-56. doi: 10.1016/j.cemconres.2017.08.017
31. Matschei, T.; Lothenbach, B.; and Glasser, F. P., “The Role of Calcium Carbonate in Cement Hydration,” Cement and Concrete Research, V. 37, No. 4, Apr. 2007, pp. 551-558. doi: 10.1016/j.cemconres.2006.10.013
32. Kohandelnia, M.; Hosseinpoor, M.; Yahia, A.; and Belarbi, R., “New Insight on Rheology of Self-Consolidating Earth Concrete (SCEC),” Powder Technology, V. 424, June 2023, Article No. 118561. doi: 10.1016/j.powtec.2023.118561
33. Youness, D.; Hosseinpoor, M.; Yahia, A.; and Tagnit-Hamou, A., “Flowability Characteristics of Dry Supplementary Cementitious Materials Using Carr Measurements and Their Effect on the Rheology of Suspensions,” Powder Technology, V. 378, Part A, Jan. 2021, pp. 124-144. doi: 10.1016/j.powtec.2020.09.064
34. Diederich, P.; Mouret, M.; de Ryck, A.; Ponchon, F.; and Escadeillas, G., “The Nature of Limestone Filler and Self-Consolidating Feasibility—Relationships Between Physical, Chemical and Mineralogical Properties of Fillers and the Flow at Different States, from Powder to Cement-Based Suspension,” Powder Technology, V. 218, Mar. 2012, pp. 90-101. doi: 10.1016/j.powtec.2011.11.045
35. ASTM C494/C494M-17, “Standard Specification for Chemical Admixtures for Concrete,” ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2017, 10 pp.
36. AASHTO M 194M/M 194-13 (2021), “Standard Specification for Chemical Admixtures for Concrete,” American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC, 2022.
37. Zhang, T.; Vandeperre, L. J.; and Cheeseman, C. R., “Formation of Magnesium Silicate Hydrate (M-S-H) Cement Pastes Using Sodium Hexametaphosphate,” Cement and Concrete Research, V. 65, Nov. 2014, pp. 8-14. doi: 10.1016/j.cemconres.2014.07.001
38. ASTM C305-20, “Standard Practice for Mechanical Mixing of Hydraulic Cement Pastes and Mortars of Plastic Consistency,” ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2020, 3 pp.
39. Roussel, N.; Stefani, C.; and Leroy, R., “From Mini-Cone Test to Abrams Cone Test: Measurement of Cement-Based Materials Yield Stress Using Slump Tests,” Cement and Concrete Research, V. 35, No. 5, May 2005, pp. 817-822. doi: 10.1016/j.cemconres.2004.07.032
40. ASTM C109/C109M-20, “Standard Test Method for Compressive Strength of Hydraulic Cement Mortars (Using 2-in. or [50-mm] Cube Specimens),” ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2020, 11 pp.
41. ASTM D4318-17, “Standard Test Methods for Liquid Limit, Plastic Limit, and Plasticity Index of Soils,” ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2017, 20 pp.
42. ASTM D6393-14, “Standard Test Method for Bulk Solids Characterization by Carr Indices,” ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2014, 8 pp.
43. Carr, R. L., “Evaluating Flow Properties of Solids,” Chemical Engineering, V. 72, 1965, pp. 163-168.
44. Beakawi Al-Hashemi, H. M., and Baghabra Al-Amoudi, O. S., “A Review on the Angle of Repose of Granular Materials,” Powder Technology, V. 330, May 2018, pp. 397-417. doi: 10.1016/j.powtec.2018.02.003
45. Perrot, A.; Rangeard, D.; and Pierre, A., “Structural Built-Up of Cement-Based Materials Used for 3D-Printing Extrusion Techniques,” Materials and Structures, V. 49, No. 4, Apr. 2016, pp. 1213-1220. doi: 10.1617/s11527-015-0571-0
46. Qian, Y., and De Schutter, G., “Enhancing Thixotropy of Fresh Cement Pastes with Nanoclay in Presence of Polycarboxylate Ether Superplasticizer (PCE),” Cement and Concrete Research, V. 111, Sept. 2018, pp. 15-22. doi: 10.1016/j.cemconres.2018.06.013
47. Mostafa, A. M.; Diederich, P.; and Yahia, A., “Effectiveness of Rotational Shear in Dispersing Concentrated Cement Suspensions,” Journal of Sustainable Cement-Based Materials, V. 4, No. 3-4, 2015, pp. 205-214. doi: 10.1080/21650373.2015.1010659
48. Phadke, M. S., Quality Engineering Using Robust Design, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1989, pp. 61-292.
49. Nunes, G. M.; Anjos, M. A. S.; Lins, A. B. S. M.; Negreiros, A. M. S.; and Pessoa, L. R., “Evaluation of the Mechanical Behaviour of Representative Volumetric Elements of 3DCP Masonry Mixtures with Partial Replacement of Cement by Limestone Filler and Metakaolin,” Journal of Building Engineering, V. 78, Nov. 2023, Article No. 107650. doi: 10.1016/j.jobe.2023.107650
50. Zhang, Y.; Zhang, Y.; She, W.; Yang, L.; Liu, G.; and Yang, Y., “Rheological and Harden Properties of the High-Thixotropy 3D Printing Concrete,” Construction and Building Materials, V. 201, Mar. 2019, pp. 278-285. doi: 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.12.061
51. Duan, Z.; Li, L.; Yao, Q.; Zou, S.; Singh, A.; and Yang, H., “Effect of Metakaolin on the Fresh and Hardened Properties of 3D Printed Cementitious Composite,” Construction and Building Materials, V. 350, Oct. 2022, Article No. 128808. doi: 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2022.128808
52. Nazário Santos, F.; Gomes de Sousa, S. R.; Bombard, A. J. F.; and Lopes Vieira, S., “Rheological Study of Cement Paste with Metakaolin and/or Limestone Filler Using Mixture Design of Experiments,” Construction and Building Materials, V. 143, July 2017, pp. 92-103. doi: 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2017.03.001
53. Kawashima, S.; Hou, P.; Corr, D. J.; and Shah, S. P., “Modification of Cement-Based Materials with Nanoparticles,” Cement and Concrete Composites, V. 36, Feb. 2013, pp. 8-15. doi: 10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2012.06.012
54. Tregger, N. A.; Pakula, M. E.; and Shah, S. P., “Influence of Clays on the Rheology of Cement Pastes,” Cement and Concrete Research, V. 40, No. 3, Mar. 2010, pp. 384-391. doi: 10.1016/j.cemconres.2009.11.001
55. Yuan, Q.; Zhou, D.; Khayat, K. H.; Feys, D.; and Shi, C., “On the Measurement of Evolution of Structural Build-Up of Cement Paste with Time by Static Yield Stress Test vs. Small Amplitude Oscillatory Shear Test,” Cement and Concrete Research, V. 99, Sept. 2017, pp. 183-189. doi: 10.1016/j.cemconres.2017.05.014
56. Jiao, D.; El Cheikh, K.; Shi, C.; Lesage, K.; and De Schutter, G., “Structural Build-Up of Cementitious Paste with Nano-Fe3O4 Under Time-Varying Magnetic Fields,” Cement and Concrete Research, V. 124, Oct. 2019, Article No. 105857. doi: 10.1016/j.cemconres.2019.105857
57. Roussel, N.; Bessaies-Bey, H.; Kawashima, S.; Marchon, D.; Vasilic, K.; and Wolfs, R., “Recent Advances on Yield Stress and Elasticity of Fresh Cement-Based Materials,” Cement and Concrete Research, V. 124, Oct. 2019, Article No. 105798. doi: 10.1016/j.cemconres.2019.105798
58. Güneyisi, E.; Gesoğlu, M.; and Mermerdaş, K., “Improving Strength, Drying Shrinkage, and Pore Structure of Concrete Using Metakaolin,” Materials and Structures, V. 41, No. 5, June 2008, pp. 937-949. doi: 10.1617/s11527-007-9296-z
59. Drissi, S.; Shi, C.; Li, N.; Liu, Y.; Liu, J.; and He, P., “Relationship Between the Composition and Hydration-Microstructure-Mechanical Properties of Cement-Metakaolin-Limestone Ternary System,” Construction and Building Materials, V. 302, Oct. 2021, Article No. 124175. doi: 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2021.124175
60. Rojo-López, G.; González-Fonteboa, B.; Martínez-Abella, F.; and González-Taboada, I., “Rheology, Durability, and Mechanical Performance of Sustainable Self-Compacting Concrete with Metakaolin and Limestone Filler,” Case Studies in Construction Materials, V. 17, Dec. 2022, Article No. e01143. doi: 10.1016/j.cscm.2022.e01143
61. Bhattacherjee, S.; Jain, S.; and Santhanam, M., “A Method to Increase the Workability Retention of Concrete with Limestone Calcined Clay Based Cementitious System Using a Dispersing Agent Containing Sodium Hexametaphosphate,” Cement and Concrete Composites, V. 132, Sept. 2022, Article No. 104624. doi: 10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2022.104624
62. Tan, H.; Zou, F.; Liu, M.; Ma, B.; Guo, Y.; and Jian, S., “Effect of the Adsorbing Behavior of Phosphate Retarders on Hydration of Cement Paste,” Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, ASCE, V. 29, No. 9, Sept. 2017, p. 04017088. doi: 10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0001929
63. Mostafa, A. M., and Yahia, A., “Physico-Chemical Kinetics of Structural Build-Up of Neat Cement-Based Suspensions,” Cement and Concrete Research, V. 97, July 2017, pp. 11-27. doi: 10.1016/j.cemconres.2017.03.003
64. Mehdipour, I., and Khayat, K. H., “Effect of Particle-Size Distribution and Specific Surface Area of Different Binder Systems on Packing Density and Flow Characteristics of Cement Paste,” Cement and Concrete Composites, V. 78, Apr. 2017, pp. 120-131. doi: 10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2017.01.005